Technical Articles

Bearings & Power Transmission

Bearing Suffixes: What 2RS, ZZ and C3 Mean

2RS means rubber contact seals, ZZ means metal shields, C3 means extra internal clearance. How to read a bearing suffix and match a replacement.

November 3, 2026 Design Calculations & Reference

MAWP vs Design vs Operating Pressure

MAWP is the highest pressure a vessel may see at the top, at a stated temperature.

October 22, 2026 Sensors & Measurement

Laser Distance and Displacement Sensors

Laser sensors measure distance by triangulation (short range, fine resolution) or time of flight (long range). Specs, problem surfaces, laser classes.

October 22, 2026 Drives & Motors

VFD Speed Control vs Torque Control

In speed control a VFD holds speed and lets torque vary; in torque control it holds torque and lets speed vary. When each fits and why speed limits matter.

October 22, 2026 Tooling & Workholding

End Mill Types: Flutes, Helix and Geometry

Fewer flutes clear chips better; more flutes give a finer finish. How flute count, helix, end shape, centre cutting and shank type change an end mill.

October 22, 2026 Selection & Comparison Guides

How to Choose a Controller: PLC, PAC or Relay

Relays suit a few fixed functions, smart relays small machines, micro PLCs fixed I/O, modular PLCs and PACs large systems. How to count I/O and choose.

October 22, 2026 Conveyors & Material Handling

Conveyor Types Compared: Belt, Roller, Chain, Screw

Belts carry bulk and mixed items, rollers move cartons, chain and slat take heavy loads, screws and bucket elevators move bulk solids. How to choose.

October 22, 2026 Maintenance & Reliability

Allen-Bradley Lifecycle Status by Part Family

Which Allen-Bradley part families carry a discontinued or obsolete status? Counts by family from 27,368 parts in the KKM catalog, and how to read them.

October 22, 2026 Electrical Control & Protection

Combination Starters: Type E, Type F and Fused

A combination starter puts disconnect, short-circuit protection, contactor and overload in one listed unit. How fused, breaker, Type E and F differ.

October 21, 2026 Electrical Control & Protection

Intrinsic Safety Barriers vs Galvanic Isolators

Zener barriers clamp energy and need a dedicated IS earth; galvanic isolators isolate circuits and do not. How each works and how entity checks work.

October 21, 2026 Machine Safety & Guarding

Safety Contactors: Mirror and Force-Guided Contacts

A safety contactor's auxiliary contacts are linked to its main contacts, so a safety relay can see a weld. Mirror vs force-guided, and how to replace one.

October 21, 2026 Hydraulics & Fluid Power

Pipe Flange Types and ASME Pressure Classes

ASME B16.5 flanges come in seven classes, and a class is not a psi rating. Flange types, faces, how ratings fall with heat, and how to identify one.

October 21, 2026 Fasteners, Materials & Finishes

Nut Types: Hex, Nylon Insert, Flange and Lock

A nut must be at least as strong as its bolt: class 8 with 8.8, class 10 with 10.9. Nut types, prevailing torque nuts, jam nuts and material choices.

October 21, 2026 Bearings & Power Transmission

Keyless Bushings and Shrink Discs Explained

Keyless bushings and shrink discs lock a hub to a shaft by friction from tapered rings, no keyway. How they work, how to torque them, how to remove them.

October 21, 2026 Brand Comparisons

Parker vs Eaton Hydraulics: How They Compare

Eaton sold its hydraulics business to Danfoss in 2021, so the real comparison is Parker vs Vickers by Danfoss. Ranges, legacy names and replacing parts.

October 20, 2026 Brand Comparisons

Omron vs Keyence Photoelectric Sensors

Omron and Keyence both cover every photoelectric mode, but differ in series, setup and sales channel. A factual comparison for engineers and spares buyers.

October 20, 2026 Drives & Motors

Siemens MICROMASTER to SINAMICS G120 Migration

MICROMASTER 4 drives are now spare parts only; Siemens points to SINAMICS G120. What changes, how parameters move and what to record first.

October 20, 2026 PLC, HMI & Industrial Networking

Siemens S7-300 to S7-1500: Migration Basics

S7-300 CPUs and modules show as spare parts with production cancelled. How Siemens' migration guide moves the project, I/O and networks onto an S7-1500.

October 20, 2026 Drives & Motors

ABB ACS800 to ACS880: Replacing a Legacy Drive

ABB lists ACS800 R7-R8 drives in Classic phase since 2017, with Limited planned for 2030. How ACS880 replacement and modernisation work, and what to reuse.

October 20, 2026 PLC, HMI & Industrial Networking

Replacing an Obsolete HMI: Cutout, Comms, Screens

Replacing a dead HMI means matching the panel cutout, the PLC protocol and driver, the power supply and the screen application. How to check each one.

October 20, 2026 Drives & Motors

Motor Start Capacitors and Starting Relays

A start capacitor gives a single-phase motor its starting torque for a few seconds; a relay or centrifugal switch then drops it out. How each part works.

October 19, 2026 Seals & Sealing

Metric O-Ring to AS568: How to Cross-Reference

Match the cross-section first, then the inside diameter, and check stretch and squeeze in the real groove before using the nearest AS568 size.

October 19, 2026 Pneumatics & Air Systems

Pneumatic Cylinder Cross-Reference by ISO Standard

ISO 15552, ISO 6432 and ISO 21287 fix the mounting dimensions that let cylinders from different makers swap. What they cover and what to check.

October 19, 2026 Electrical Control & Protection

How to Cross-Reference an Industrial Fuse

A cross-brand fuse must match class, amps, voltage, interrupting rating and time-delay characteristic. How UL classes and IEC categories make it work.

October 19, 2026 Sensors & Measurement

How to Cross-Reference a Discontinued Sensor

Match principle, range, housing, output, NO/NC, supply and connector pinout, then bench-test. How to cross-reference a discontinued sensor to any brand.

October 19, 2026 Hydraulics & Fluid Power

Metric Hydraulic Fittings: DIN 24°, BSP and JIS

DIN 24° cone, BSP 60° cone and JIS 30° flare fittings look alike but do not mix. How to identify each by thread, pitch, seat angle and tube size.

October 19, 2026 Electrical Control & Protection

Voltage Drop: Formula, Tables and Cable Sizing

Voltage drop = 2 x K x I x L / CM single-phase, 1.732 x K x I x L / CM three-phase. How to apply it, the 3%/5% guide and when to upsize cable.

October 19, 2026 Enclosures, Wiring & Cable

Conduit Fill: How to Size Conduit for Wires

Conduit fill limits are 53% for one wire, 31% for two and 40% for three or more. How to calculate fill, why the limits exist and what fails inspection.

October 19, 2026 Design Calculations & Reference

How to Calculate Belt Length for 2 or 3 Pulleys

Open belt length is L = 2C + pi(D+d)/2 + (D-d)^2/4C. The crossed-belt and three-pulley methods, which length a belt number uses, and centre distance.

October 19, 2026 Maintenance & Reliability

Babbitt Journal Bearings: Damage and Rebabbitting

A babbitt shell can usually be rebabbitted if the backing is sound and the bond can be proven. How to read wiping, fatigue and scoring, and what to check.

October 19, 2026 Linear Motion & Actuation

Linear Guide Friction: Coefficient and Seal Drag

Profile rail carriages typically run at a friction coefficient of 0.002 to 0.003, plus a few newtons of seal drag. How to use both in a thrust figure.

October 19, 2026 Brand Comparisons

Industrial Brand Ownership: Who Owns Which Name

Square D is Schneider, Cutler-Hammer and Bussmann are Eaton, Baldor is ABB, Dodge is RBC. Which legacy names sit where, and how to search old nameplates.

October 19, 2026 Sensors & Measurement

How to Install an Encoder: Coupling, Alignment, Wiring

A good encoder install comes down to coupling, alignment, mounting, shielding and matching the output. A practical checklist and common mistakes.

October 9, 2026 Pneumatics & Air Systems

Pneumatic Tubing and Push-In Fittings: Specifying

How to choose pneumatic tubing and push-in fittings: nylon, polyurethane, polyethylene, FEP, tube OD, threads and cutting tube square.

October 9, 2026 Hydraulics & Fluid Power

Centrifugal vs Positive Displacement Pumps

Centrifugal and positive displacement pumps behave very differently. How each works, what viscosity does, and the data to collect before you choose.

October 9, 2026 Maintenance & Reliability

Troubleshooting a Control Panel Fault, Step by Step

A repeatable method for finding a control panel fault: safety, operator questions, power checks, PLC diagnostics, divide and measure, then document.

October 9, 2026 Enclosures, Wiring & Cable

What Is IP69K? The High-Pressure Washdown Rating

IP69K means a product survives close-range, high-pressure, hot spray. What the test involves, how it differs from IP66 and IP67, and what else needs it.

October 9, 2026 Conveyors & Material Handling

Conveyor Pulleys: Lagging, Crowning and Types

Conveyor pulleys explained: drive, tail, bend and snub roles, drum vs wing designs, lagging types, crowned vs flat faces and basic shaft checks.

October 9, 2026 Maintenance & Reliability

Machine Maintenance Checklist: Daily to Annual

A practical maintenance checklist for production machines, split by daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly and annual tasks, with how to record findings.

October 9, 2026 Electrical Control & Protection

Electrical Noise and EMI in Control Panels

Electrical noise causes random PLC faults and bad analog readings. Where it comes from, how it couples in, and the fixes that actually work.

October 9, 2026 Enclosures, Wiring & Cable

Wiring Duct: Selection, Fill and Routing in Panels

Panel wiring duct holds and protects control wiring. Slotted vs solid, finger width, sizing by wire count, covers, and power and signal separation.

October 9, 2026 Machine Safety & Guarding

Machine Guarding Walk-Through Checklist

A practical machine guarding walk-through: fixed guards, interlocks, light curtains, e-stops, lockout points, bypass checks and how to record findings.

October 9, 2026 Bearings & Power Transmission

V-Belt Drive Inspection, Tension and Maintenance

How to inspect a V-belt drive: wear patterns, correct tension by deflection, sheave groove gauging, alignment, and what noise tells you.

October 9, 2026 Sensors & Measurement

How to Select a Pressure Gauge

Choose a pressure gauge by range, dial size, accuracy grade, Bourdon or diaphragm element, liquid fill, connection and media. A practical guide.

October 9, 2026 Linear Motion & Actuation

Pneumatic vs Electric Actuators: How to Choose

Pneumatic and electric actuators suit different jobs. Compare force, speed, positioning, energy use and upkeep, with a decision table.

October 9, 2026 PLC, HMI & Industrial Networking

The PLC Scan Cycle Explained

A PLC reads inputs, runs the program, writes outputs and repeats. How the scan works, why rung order matters, and what slows it down.

October 9, 2026 PLC, HMI & Industrial Networking

EtherCAT vs PROFINET vs EtherNet/IP

How the three common industrial Ethernet protocols differ in method, topology, determinism and ecosystem, and how to choose for a given machine.

October 9, 2026 PLC, HMI & Industrial Networking

Secure Remote Access to PLCs and HMIs

Port forwarding a PLC to the internet is how plants get found. How VPNs, gateways and jump hosts compare, plus MFA, logging and what to ask a vendor.

October 9, 2026 Machine Safety & Guarding

Cable-Pull Safety Switches: Rope Pull Explained

A cable-pull switch is an emergency stop you can reach anywhere along a rope. How they work, rope tension and sag, latching reset and inspection.

October 9, 2026 PLC, HMI & Industrial Networking

EtherNet/IP Implicit vs Explicit Messaging

Implicit messaging carries cyclic I/O over UDP; explicit messaging is request and response over TCP. How each works, RPI, multicast and common faults.

October 9, 2026 PLC, HMI & Industrial Networking

IT vs OT Network Security Basics for Plants

IT protects data; OT keeps machines running safely. How the priorities differ, plus the basics: segmentation, inventory, passwords, removable media.

October 9, 2026 PLC, HMI & Industrial Networking

HMI Screen Design Best Practices

Grey backgrounds, colour only for abnormal, a sane alarm philosophy and shallow navigation: HMI screen design that helps operators spot problems early.

October 9, 2026 Sensors & Measurement

Troubleshooting a 4-20 mA Loop Step by Step

Find the fault in a 4-20 mA loop: measure current in series, read live zero, check loop power and burden, and separate sensor, wiring and input card.

October 9, 2026 Bearings & Power Transmission

Clutches and Brakes: Types and How to Choose

Friction, electromagnetic, spring-applied, one-way, cam and centrifugal clutches and brakes compared, with what to size for and when you want a fail-safe.

October 9, 2026 Bearings & Power Transmission

Plain Bushings and Sleeve Bearings: Types and Sizing

Bronze, sintered, polymer and steel-backed bushings compared: how to size one, shaft hardness and finish, and when a plain bearing beats a rolling one.

October 9, 2026 Bearings & Power Transmission

Types of Gears: Spur, Helical, Bevel, Worm and More

The main gear types and how they differ in efficiency, noise, thrust and shaft layout, with a comparison table and notes on backlash and module vs pitch.

October 9, 2026 Maintenance & Reliability

Spun Bearing Race: Creep, Fretting and What to Do

A bearing ring that turns on its shaft or in its housing is a fit problem. How to spot it, what causes it, what repairs hold, and which are only a stopgap.

October 9, 2026 Bearings & Power Transmission

Bearing Precision Classes: ABEC and ISO Explained

ABEC 1/3/5/7/9 and ISO P0/P6/P5/P4/P2 rate how tightly a bearing is made. What they cover, what they leave out, and when a higher class pays off.

October 9, 2026 Pneumatics & Air Systems

Pneumatic Circuit Symbols: How to Read a Diagram

Pneumatic circuit symbols follow ISO 1219. What each symbol means, in words, and how to read a simple circuit step by step.

October 9, 2026 PLC, HMI & Industrial Networking

Ladder Logic Basics: Contacts, Coils, Timers

The core ladder logic instructions in plain terms: contacts, coils, latch versus seal-in, timers, counters, compares and one-shots, with a start/stop rung.

October 9, 2026